The living and non-living components of an environment and the interelationship that exists between them.
2) Give Three Non-Living Components of an Ecosystem
Any three from:
the climate, the soil, water, light, temperature, air
3) What is the Difference Between a Food Chain and a Food Web?
A food chain is a simple linear series of connections between producers and consumers, whereas a food web shows these connections in a more complicated way.
4) In a freshwater pond ecosystem, is algae a producer or a consumer?
It’s a producer
5) In part of a food chain, a duck eats a stickleback. Which way should the arrow be pointing?
Towards the duck
6) Where do producers get their energy from?
Producers get their energy from sunlight, (and convert it into glucose.)
7) Where do consumers get their energy from?
Consumers get their energy from eating other organisms.
8) What do Scavengers and Decomposers do?
They return nutrients in the organisms to the soil, (which is important to the nutrient cycle as it means that the nutrients are available for the growth of organisms once again.)
9) What are the Two main sources of Nutrients in an Ecosystem?
Rainwater washing chemicals out of the atmosphere, and weathered rock releasing nutrients into the soil
Biomes and Climates
1) What is a Biome?
A global ecosystem.
2) What Type of Biome is the UK in?
A temperature deciduous biome
3) What usually defines a Biome?
The dominant type of vegetation.
4) Why do Temperatures and Light Levels Vary in different places?
Near the equator, the Sun’s rays are concentrated (because the Sun’s rays reach a small area), so there is high heat energy and a high temperature. Farther away from the equator, the Sun’s rays are more spread out, (because the Sun’s rays reach a large area) so there is less heat energy, so less light and lower temperatures.
5) What other factors affect the temperature of an area?
Altitude (temperatures decrease by 1 degree for every 1000 metres in height) and location (away from the sea, the land heats up in summer more quickly and cools more quickly in the winter).
6) What two parts are soils made up of?
An organic part, made of plant remains, and an inorganic part, made of minerals from rock breakdown.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Location and Climate
0) Name the 4 stratified layers in a temperate deciduous forest, from top to bottom
Canopy - sub-canopy - herb layer - ground layer (I put it here as the answer is in an other questions)
1) Where are Temperate Deciduous Forests Located?
They're found across much of north-west Europe, eastern North America and parts of east Asia.
2) What is the Climate like?
Moderate, with rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year, warm, but not too dry summers and cool but not to cold winters. There are four seasons, and a long growing season lasting up to seven months.
3) What is the soil found there called?
Brown soil, or brown earth soil.
4) What is the soil like, and why?
Brown soil tends to be rich and fertile. This is because active weathering provides plenty of nutrients, and the annual leaf fall further enriches it.
Stratification
5) What does the canopy do, and what are the main trees in it.
It acts like an umbrella, and the main trees forming it are oak and ash
6) What is the sub-canopy made of?
Saplings, and smaller trees, like hazel.
7) What is the Herb Layer made of?
Bracken, brambles, bluebells, wild garlic and ivy.
8) What is the Ground Layer Like??
It’s close to the soil surface, damp and dark - ideal conditions for moss to grow.
9) Why is Stratification Useful?
It helps prey hide from predators and vice versa. It helps plant life, e.g. moss is adapted to the dark conditions of the ground layer.
Plant Adaptation
10) How are Bluebells adapted to the climate of a temperate deciduous forest?
They flower in early spring, before the trees have grown back all their leaves and blocked most of the light. This means the bluebells can get all the sunlight they need to photosynthesise.
11) Why do trees have broad leaves?
Because the sunlight is weak - so it means they absorb more sunlight to photosynthesise with.
12) What is the problem with broad leaves?
There’s a lot of potential water loss through the stomata, and water might be limited during the winter when the ground freezes.
13) What do they do to combat this?
They shed their leaves in autumn, in response to heat and light reductions. If there’s a shortage of water in the spring and summer, then they shed their leaves earlier.
14) How are the roots adapted to the climate AND soils?
The annual leaf fall means there is a nutrient rich humus at the top of the soil, so the trees have shallow roots to reach these. There is moderate rainfall, which leaches nutrients, so they also have deep roots to reach these.
15) How is the bark adapted to the climate?
There are cool winters, so the trees have thick bark to protect them from the frost, as well as animals, like deer, which can live throughout the year because the climate is moderate.
Epping Forest Case Study
16) Where is Epping Forest?
It runs north-east of London on a high gravel ridge.
17) What is Epping Forest?
An ancient deciduous woodland.
18) How big is Epping Forest?
It covers an area of about 2,500 ha and is about 19km long and 4km wide. It's the largest area of open space near London.
19) What habitats does Epping Forest contain?
It’s mainly deciduous woodland (70%) but there are also other natural habitats such as grasslands and marshes.
20) Name some species present in the forest
There’s a rich variety, including wood-boring stag beetles, fallow deer and the three native woodpecker species (great spotted, lesser spotted and green woodpeckers).
21) How much of the forest is an SSSI and a European Special Area of Conservation?
Over 1,600 hectares (ha).
22) What is Pollarding?
Cutting off trees at about shoulder height to encourage new growth.
23) Why does Pollarding help trees live longer?
If the tree weren’t pollarded, it’s crown would become too heavy and the tree would topple over or split.
24) Why is Pollarding sustainable?
It’s not cut down, so habitats are preserved and creatures like the rare saproxylic beetle are not killed in the logging process. Yet, it still ensures a supply of wood for future generations because wood can be gained while the tree’s alive, and the tree can be replanted once it’s dead.
25) How many trees have been repollarded since 1981?
Over 1,000 trees have been repollarded since 1981.
26) What happened in 1878?
The Epping Forest Act of Parliament was passed, so that Epping forest would be unenclosed and unbuilt on, and managed by the City of London Corporation.
27) Give 3 Tourist Management Strategies
Providing car parks, toilets and refreshment facilities and maintaining footpaths to manage recreation. Providing three easy access car parks for people with disabilities. Preserving ancient earthworks and buildings.
28) Give 7 Sustainable Management Strategies
Allowing trees to die and collapse naturally (unless they’re dangerous). Preserving old trees by repollarding them. Encouraging grazing (by the herd of 50 cows) to maintain its grassland and flora and fauna. Maintaining ponds to prevent them silting up. Preserving the herd of fallow deer, leaving dead wood to rot (habitat and food for fungi). Some grassy areas left uncut to encourage wildlife like butterflies.
Tropical Rainforests
Location and Climate
0) Name the 4 Stratified Layers, from top to bottom
Emergents - canopy - undercanopy - shrub layer
1) Where are tropical rainforests located?
Tropical rainforests are found in the tropics, mainly within the equatorial climate belt , 23 degrees either side of the equator. They make an almost continuous belt. Exceptions are the east of Australia and part of south Asia. They are found in Central and South America, the Amazon and Congo Basins, through central parts of Africa, in south-east Asia and northern Australia.
2) What are annual rainfall levels like in tropical rainforests?
Annual rainfall levels usually exceed 2000mm in tropical rainforests. (Most afternoons usually experience a heavy convectional thunder shower, often with thunder and lightning.)
3) What is the daytime humidity like?
There’s a high daytime humidity, sticky, unhealthy heat.
4) What are temperatures like?
Temperatures are high and constant throughout the year, ranging from about 26-28 degrees, because the sun is always high in the sky.
Stratification
5) Give some types of tree present in tropical rainforests (5)
Rosewood, mahogany, ebony, rubber and palm.
6) Are trees evergreen?
Yes, clearly, the temperatures only range from 26-28 degrees.
7) What’s the variety of tree species like?
There’s a great variety of tree species, up to 100 per hectare.
8) How tall are emergents, and give an example of one
Emergents are the tallest trees, reaching up to 50m, an example is capoc trees.
9) Tell me three things about the canopy
It absorbs up to 70% of light, it shades the underlying species and protects the soil from erosion, and the majority of plants and animals are found here.
10) How tall do trees in the undercanopy grow?
Trees in the undercanopy grow up to 20m high.
11) What’s the Lowest Layer called?
The shrub layer.
Adaptation
11) How are Leaves adapted? (3 ways)
There’s loads of water, so they are smooth and have drip tips to shed excess water. Some may have flexible bases so they can turn to face the sun.
12) How is the Tree Bark adapted?
It’s thin, as temperatures are constantly high (26-28) so there’s no need for protection from frost. It also lets water flow down them easy, as there are high rainfall levels
13) How can Tree Roots be adapted?
Many of the trees have shallow roots to absorb the nutrients found at the ground surface where dead leaves quickly decompose in the humid conditions. These shallow roots give limited support, so taller trees have buttress roots which emerge from the ground and prevent them from falling over. They help transport water and the oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange.
14) How are Epiphytes adapted?
They live on branches high on the canopy to seek sunlight - they obtain nutrients from the water and the air instead of the infertile soil.
15) How are Lianas adapted?
Lianas support themselves on tree trunks. They are vine-like plants, climbing up the trunk and along the branches before plunging down to the forest floor. They can grow up to 200m in length!
16) How are Strangler Figs Adapted?
Strangler figs start at the top of a tree and work down. The seed is dropped in a nook at the top of a tree and starts to grow, using the debris collected there as nourishment. Gradually the fig sends down aerial roots down the trunk of the host, until they reach the ground and take root. As it matures, the fig will gradually surround the host, criss-cross its roots around it and start to strangle… The fig’s branches will grow taller to catch sunlight and invasive roots rob the host of nutrients. Eventually, the host will die, leaving the hollow, but sturdy trunk of the strangler fig.
17) What is the soil called, what’s it like and why?
Latosol - it’s infertile, red, rich in iron and very acidic. This is because the heavy rainfall quickly dissolves soil and transports them downwards in the soil profile.
Malaysia Case Study
18) What is Primary/Virgin Rainforest?
Rainforest that represents the natural vegetation in the area, unaffected by the actions of people (like logging).
19) Where is Malaysia?
Malaysia is a country in south-east Asia. It is made up of Peninsular Malaysia and Eastern Malaysia (which is on the island of Borneo)
20) What Percentage of Malaysia is Forested? What Percentage of this is Primary Rainforest?
Nearly 63% of Malaysia is forest and commercial tree crops - mainly palm and rubber. But, only about 18% is primary rainforest.
21) How many species of flowering plants, tree and butterfly are there in Malaysia?
5,500 species of flowering plants. 2,600 species of tree and over 1,000 species of butterfly.
22) How many species of mammals are there, and what percentage of them only live in forests?
203 species of mammals, but 78% only live in forests.
23) How much rainforest is being lost in Malaysia per year?
An average 140,200 ha of forest has been lost each year since 2000. UN statistics suggests that the rate of deforestation in Malaysia is increasing faster than in any other country in the world.
24) How is Logging a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
During the 1980s Borneo was the leading exporter of tropical wood, and clear felling was common, which led to the destruction of forest habitats. Nowadays, selective logging is mainly used, but this reduces biodiversity and roads have to be construction. Environmental groups claim to have found evidence of illegal logging in Borneo. Marginal slopes have been logged, leading to soil erosion and mud slides.
25) How is Energy a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
The $2 billion dollar Bakun Dam in Sarawak, due for completion in 2009, was predicted to flood thousands of hectares of rainforest, and that 230 square kilometres would be cut down. This supplies hydroelectric power to industrialised Peninsular Malaysia.
26) How is Mining a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
Mining has become widespread in Peninsular Malaysia, mainly tin mining and smelting. Areas of forest have been cleared for mining operations and road construction. Areas of land and river have been polluted.
27) How are Commercial Plantations a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
Malaysia is a major exporter of palm oil and rubber. In the early 20th century, land was cleared for rubber plantations, but now synthetic rubber means that many of these have been abandoned or converted. It is also the world’s largest palm oil exporter. In the 70s, large areas of land were converted into palm oil plantations as there was a 10 year tax break. This is threatening species like orang-utans…
28) How was Resettlement a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
In the past, poor urban dwellers were encouraged to move to the countryside to remve pressure on cities (transmigration) From 1956 to the 1980s, it’s estimated that 15,000 ha of rainforest were cut down to accommodate the settlers - many of whom set up plantations.
29) How are Fires a Threat to Malaysia’s Rainforests?
They are common on Borneo. Some are natural (e.g. from lightning) whilst others are due to forest clearance or arson. ‘Slash and burn’ agriculture (where local people clear areas of land to grow crops) can result in wildfires.
30) When was the National Forestry Act Created?
The National Forestry Act was created in 1977 by the Malaysian government, (because technological improvements, like chainsaws, had led to widespread logging)
31) What are the 5 aims of the National Forestry Act?
1 - Develop timber processing to increase the profitability of exported wood, so decrease the demand for raw timber. (The export of low-value logs is now banned) 2 - To encourage alternative timber sources (e.g. rubber trees). 3 - Increase public awareness of forests 4 - Increase research into forestry 5 - Involve local communities in forest projects
32) Describe the Selective Management System
2 years before felling: Pre-felling study to identify what is there. 1 year before felling: Commercially viable trees marked for felling with arrows to show which direction they should be felled in to not damage other valuable trees. Felling carried out by licence holders. 3-6 months after felling: A survey to see what has been felled - prosecution may result from illegal felling. 2 years after felling - treatment plan drawn up to restore forest. 5-10 years after felling: remedial and regenerative work carried out, trees replanted etc. 30-40 years after felling: cycle begins again.
33) What have been the problems with the selective management system?
A lack of trained officials has led to a continuation of illegal activities. Remedial measures haven’t always been carried out successfully. (Despite this it’s recognised as one of the most sustainable approaches to tropical forestry in the world)
34) What are Permanent Forest Estates?
About 10% of forested land has special conservation status to help rainforest habitats and species survive. Land use surveys in the 1960s and 70s allowed the government to identify Permanent Forest Estates, where no development or conversion of land is allowed.
35) What is the FSC?
The Forest Stewardship Council - an international organisation that promotes sustainable forestry. Products from sustainably managed forests carry the FSC label. They try to educate manufacturers and consumers about buying wood from sustainable sources. It also aims to reduce demand for rare tropical hardwoods.
36) What’s the other method of sustainable management?
Malaysia has promoted its forests as ecotourism locations, introducing people to the natural world without damaging it. This makes the natural environment a source of income for the local people.
Worldwide Initiatives
37) Why are countries unlikely to mothball rainforests?
They are a valuable resource, especially for poor countries trying to expand their economies. Apart from timber, the land could be used for commercial plantations (Malaysia) or ranching (Brazil). Valuable mineral resources such as bauxite, copper or iron may be present beneath the forest.
38) How can debt relief help protect rainforests?
Other countries may recognise the international importance of rainforests by paying for them. This could take the form of debt relief, where a country is relieved of some of its debt in return for retaining rainforests.
39) How and why was the 75,000ha Gola Forest Protected in 2008?
In 2008, the Gola Forest on Sierra Leone’s southern border with Liberia became a 75,000ha national park, protecting it from further deforestation, because it’s a carbon sink. This was supported by money from the European Commission, the French Government and NGOs such as the RSPB and Conservation International.
Hot Deserts
Location, Climate and Soils
1) Where are Hot Deserts Located, and why?
Hot deserts are generally found in dry continental interiors in a belt approximately 30° N and 30° S. They are located there because by the time the moist air from the equator has reached there it had dried out. Also, it is at these latitudes where air that has risen at the Equator descends, forming an anticyclone (a persistent belt of high pressure). This explains the high daytime temperatures and lack of cloud cover - which means that temperatures plunge below freezing at night.
2) What is a Desert?
An area that receives less than 250mm of rainfall per year.
3) What are Desert Soils like?
They are sandy or stony with little organic matter (due to lack of dense vegetation.) Soils are dry, but can soak up water rapidly after rainfall. Evaporation draws salts to the surface, often leaving a white residue on the ground. Desert soils are not particularly fertile.
Desert Adaptations
4) How is the Desert Yellow Daisy Adapted?
It has small, linear leaves as there is no competition for sunlight, and so it loses less water (less than 250mm a year) as the less surface area it has, the less evapo-transpiration occurs. They are also hairy and slightly succulent (meaning they can store water).
5) How is the Great Basin Sagebrush Adapted?
It has tap roots up to 25m long, giving it a larger surface area to absorb water, and needle-like leaves to reduce water loss through evapo-transpiration.
6) How is the Giant Saguaro Cactus Adapted?
It’s succulent, so stores water, with roots very close to the surface so it can soak up water before it evaporates. It’s skin is pleated so it can expand when it soaks up water. It has needles to protect itself from animals that might eat it.
7) How is the Joshua Tree Adapted?
It has needle-like leaves for protection and to minimise water loss. These leaves are coated with a waxy resin which also minimises water loss and tastes horrible to animals trying to eat it.
Thar Desert
8) Where is the Thar Desert?
The Thar Desert stretches across north-west India and Pakistan. It covers an area of 200,000 km squared, mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan.
9) What are the Climate and Soils like in the Thar Desert?
Very low rainfall - 120-240mm per year. Temperatures in July can reach 53°. Much of the desert is sandy hills with extensive mobile sand dunes and clumps of thorn forest vegetation. The soils are generally sandy, but not very fertile, as there is little organic matter to enrich them. They drain quickly, so there is little surface water.
10) How is Subsistence Farming an Economic Opportunity in the Thar Desert?
Subsistence farming - keeping a few animals on grassy areas and cultivating fruit trees. There are huge droughts and unreliable rainfall...
11) How has Irrigation made Commercial Farming Possible?
The Indira Gandhi Canal was constructed in 1958 and has a total length of 650km. Over 3,500km of land are under irrigation in Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. Commercial farming of wheat and cotton now flourishes in area that used to be scrub desert and the canal also provides drinking water.
12) Tell me about Mining and Industry
Rajasthan has valuable reserves of gypsum (making cement and plaster) feldspar (for ceramics) phosphorite (for fertiliser) and kaolin (for paper). Sanu limestone in Jaisalmer is the main source of limestone for India’s steel industry and is also used for making cement.
13) How is tourism an economic opportunity?
The Thar Desert’s beautiful landscapes have become a popular tourist destination. Desert safaris on camels, based at Jaisalmer, are particularly popular with foreign tourists as well as richer Indians from elsewhere. Local people benefit by acting as guides or looking after camels.
14) What are Five Future Challenges the Thar Desert Faces?
Population pressure, water management, soil erosion, lack of fuel and tourism
15) How will Population Pressure be a challenge?
The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2 and this is increasing… This is putting pressure on the fragile desert ecosystem and leading to overgrazing and overcultivation.
16) How will Water Management be a challenge?
Excessive irrigation in some places has led to the ground becoming waterlogged. Evaporation draws water to the surface. The saline water kills some plants and solid salt is deposited on the ground surface, reducing soil fertility. Elsewhere, excessive demand for water has led to an unsustainable fall in water tables.
17) How is Soil Erosion a challenge?
In some places, overcultivation and overgrazing has damaged the vegetation, leading to soil erosion by wind and rain. Once eroded, the soil takes thousands of years to reform.
18) How is Fuel/Soil Fertility a challenge?
Reserves of firewood are dwindling, so people are using manure as fuel rather than using it to improve the quality of the soil.
19) How is Tourism a challenge?
The environment will suffer if tourism is overdeveloped.
20) What is the name of the 1977 programme?
The Desert Development Programme, started in 1977
21) What are the aims of the 1977 Desert Development Programme?
To restore the ecological balance of the region by conserving, developing and harnessing land, water and human resources. It has been particularly concerned with developing forestry and stabilising sand dunes in Rajasthan.
22) How are Sand Dunes Stabilised in 1977 Desert Development Programme?
The sand dunes are very mobile and may form a threat to farmland, roads and waterways. Planting blocks of trees and establishing shelterbelts of fences and trees along roadsides and canals.
23) What is the Ber Tree?
A hardy breed of plum tree developed by scientists at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute. It produces large fruit and can survive in low rainfall conditions. The fruit can be sold and there is a potential to make a decent profit.
24) Why is the Prosopis cineraria completely amazing?
It produces a lot of foliage that can be used to feed animals. The wood is strong and can be used as a local building material as well as good-quality firewood. Its pod provide animal fodder. Crops can benefit from the shade and moist growing conditions if interspersed between the trees. It can help stabilise sand dunes.
The Sonoran Desert
1) Where is the Sonoran Desert?
It is located in the south-west of the USA, straddling the lower states of Arizona and California and stretching south into Mexico.
2) What is the Climate of the Sonoran Desert Like?
It is one of the hottest and wettest deserts, with over 300mm of rainfall falling in some places. Also, saguaro cactus!
3) Give some ways in which the physical challenges of the climate can be overcome
Air conditioning for houses, workplaces, vehicles and shopping centres. (As lots of relatively cheap energy in the USA) Water can be piped in for irrigating crops, supplying drinking water, filling swimming pools and watering golf courses.
4) Why do Holidaymakers come to the Sonoran Desert?
Due to the clear, clean atmosphere. A recent trend is retirement migration, where people decide to retire in the newly-built housing complexes and swimming pools.
5) Where and what is Marana?
A town of about 30,000 people located off a few kilometres north-west of Tucson in Arizona. Over the years it has developed into a thriving business town and leisure resort.
6) Give some details about the history of Marana
It began as a 19th Century mining and ranching community. In 1920 an irrigation system enabled it to become an agricultural centre specialising in cotton (which does well in hot conditions provided it is watered regularly). Families migrated to work in the cotton fields. Agricultural production increased during the 1940s to include barley, pecans and wheat.
7) Give some details about current the history of Marana
In the 1990s farming in the area has declined to be replaced with housing developments. Only 15 cotton farms remain… Durum wheat is grown and exported to Italy to make pasta. A heritage park has opened. In 2007 Marana began hosting golf’s PGA Matchplay Championship.
8) What is the Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan?
A 1998 plan initiated in Pima County (of which Marana is a part) to conserve the county’s most valued natural and cultural resources, whilst accommodating the inevitable population growth and economic expansion. The plan resulted from concern about wildlife habitats as housing developments expanded into the desert. An endangered species of pygmy owl was considered particularly vulnerable.
9) Give 5 Consequences of the 1998 Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan
1) Detailed mapping and inventory of the county’s natural and cultural heritage. 2) Development of buffer zones around areas of ecological significance. 3) Native plant protection. 4) Hillside development restrictions. 5) Home design recommendations to conserve energy and water.